An interesting tale of a mineral that has shaped human progress for over a millennium, from alchemy to modern industry.

Mysterious, enduring, and occasionally deadly, few elements have woven themselves into the tapestry of human history quite like antimony. Revered for its alchemical potential and wielding a double-edged role as both poison and remedy, this versatile element found its way into everything from ancient makeup and medicine to early batteries and, ultimately, a vital component in warfare, eventually driving America northward to Alaska in search of this strategic resource during the early 20th century.

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Stibnite, sometimes called antimonite, is a sulfide mineral that is an important source for the metalloid antimony.

Brittle, silvery-white, and with a distinctive metallic luster, antimony was historically recognized through its mineral form, stibnite – a lead-gray crystal that captivated alchemists and artisans alike. Its perceived mystical powers and near-immediate purgative capability inspired various uses, including medicinal treatments, alchemical endeavors, and artistic expressions, reflecting a deep intrigue long before its true chemical nature was comprehended.

From Egyptian kohl eyeliner, believed to shield against the harsh sun, Greek therapeutic powders meant to cleanse the body of impurities, to Roman remedies for digestive disturbances, skin ailments, and fevers, and later explored by medieval alchemists seeking purification and enhanced vitality, early uses of stibnite demonstrated its diverse applications across cultures.

Over the following centuries, it was alloyed with pewter for stronger tableware, added to church bells for clearer tone, and even to fortify lead for water pipes, setting the stage for its role in modernizing technologies as the Industrial Revolution unfolded.

By the dawn of the 20th century as metallurgical knowledge evolved, the value of antimony became increasingly tied to its industrial applications, particularly in ammunition during World War I – an impetus that not only highlighted its importance in warfare but also spurred other innovations.

Driven by the escalating pressures of global conflict, World War II marked a pivotal shift in the perception of antimony – from a manufacturing complement to a vital strategic resource, making it indispensable to the U.S. war effort.

Transitioning from an alchemical curiosity to an industrial lynchpin, driven by its role in military production and technological advances, this change from the old world to the new set the stage not only for its formal scientific recognition and integration into modern chemistry but also for its enduring presence as a critical resource in the global economy.

The gift of antimony

While stibium – derived from the Latin name for its primary mineral form, stibnite – had been the accepted name for centuries, the element was officially recognized as antimony in 1789 when French chemist Antoine Lavoisier included it in his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, widely regarded as the first modern chemistry textbook.

The term "antimony" (antimonium in Latin) has a debated origin, first appearing in texts attributed to the 13th-century alchemist Albertus Magnus, though it remains unclear if Magnus coined the term or adopted it from earlier sources.

Nevertheless, the etymology is often linked to the Greek word antimonos, meaning "opposed to solitude," reflecting the element's tendency to be found alongside other minerals rather than in a pure state.

Flickr.com; DTParker1000 – CC BY 2.0

A recreation of the Gutenberg press at the International Printing Museum in Carson, California, one of the earliest inventions to utilize the hardening capabilities of antimony, which, in turn, improved the durability of the letters and quality of the prints.

Gaining traction during the Renaissance and becoming a more commonly used term among alchemists and physicians, by the 16th century, antimony was regularly featured in alchemical and medical texts, and by the mid-19th century, antimony had become the universally accepted name.

While the historical name is still preserved through its elemental symbol, Sb, antimony was cemented in the modern scientific lexicon with its formal entry into Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table in 1869 as element 51, solidifying its role as an essential industrial metal.

Even as the industrial applications of antimony grew, its medicinal legacy persisted, largely due to its unique biological effects and historical use as an emetic – simply put, it was great at making one vomit.

The lingering presence of antimony in medicine can be traced back to this unique biological effect. Though often compared to arsenic for its toxicity, antimony was recognized for its distinct effects on the human body.

"Gram-for-gram, antimony is about as toxic as arsenic, but on a dose-for-dose basis it is less life-threatening simply because antimony salts rapidly cause violent vomiting, expelling most of the toxin from the body before absorption," wrote John Emsley, author of The Elements of Murder: A History of Poison.

Although both elements disrupt cellular functions and damage tissues, antimony's tendency to induce violent vomiting before absorption created a deceptive sense of safety. This emetic reaction was seen as a beneficial purge, aligning with the prevailing medical belief that expelling toxins could cure diseases.

Building on this perceived efficacy, antimony's use as a medicinal agent persisted throughout history, despite its potential dangers. It became a staple in various forms – from powders to ointments and even the notorious "antimony wine," which epitomized the belief in purging oneself of disease or illness.

A most excellent medicine

Throughout history, antimony was recognized for its harsh yet seemingly effective medicinal properties, particularly as an emetic. Initially employed as a powdered remedy, its applications expanded into balms, ointments, and ingestible concoctions, and reached its peak with the creation of vinum antimonii, or "antimony wine," a potent brew that induced violent regurgitation.

Healers, not fully understanding its toxicity, interpreted this extreme reaction as a sign of efficacy, aligning with the prevailing belief that expelling corrupt humors was a vital pathway to recovery. Yet beneath this perceived success, even minor doses could prove fatal.

In an era marked by evolving medical theories built on a false foundation, the persistent use of antimony reflected a steadfast adherence to the purgative philosophy of healing. This belief found its most influential expression in the early 17th century with the publication of The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony, a contemporary magnum opus attributed to an enigmatic 15th-century Benedictine monk, Basil Valentine:

"In this way the operative spirit and virtue of Antimony bestows its gifts, and imparts them to men, when it has been separated from its body so as to penetrate other bodies with its sanative virtue. In this process, the Artist and Vulcan (fire) must be of one mind. The fire causes the separation, the Artist forms the substance... Antimony can be put to a great many different uses, wherein the smith is the skilled Artist, while the fire is, as it were, the key."

Positioned as a definitive work on antimony's medicinal applications, it was, according to legend, hidden within a church pillar in Erfurt, Germany, only to be revealed centuries later by a bolt of lightning.

However, modern historians have found no evidence of such a Benedictine monastery existing in Erfurt. Further, they also attribute the authorship to Johann Thölde, a 17th-century pharmacist and salt works owner who masterfully blended alchemical traditions with practical insights.

Despite its dubious origins, this work greatly amplified the spread and popularity of antimony in medicine, solidifying its use across Europe for the next 300 years. Detailing its various forms – ranging from metallic to elixirs, oils, and balms – alongside its potential to heal and harm. One particular passage captures the element's paradoxical nature:

"It is a most potent poison; then, again, it is free from poison, and a most excellent Medicine, both for external and internal application. This is hidden from many through their blindness, and they judge it to be a foolish, incredible, and vain thing. We must excuse them on account of their ignorance, and permit them to plead their stupidity in extenuation of their folly. The worst of it is that they will not be taught."

This quote, whether truly Valentine's or Thölde's, encapsulates the era's belief in antimony as a remedy of great promise – tempered by a dangerous edge that only "ignorance" failed to navigate. It reflects the broader alchemical philosophy that sought to reconcile opposites, hoping to turn base elements into gold and poisons into cures.

This alchemical philosophy not only fueled its medicinal use for centuries but is also attributed to shaping the fates of prominent historical figures who fell victim to its dangers.

Prominent figures such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and King Charles II are often cited as potential victims of the toxicity of antimony, either from misguided medical treatments or intentional poisoning.

Some historians attribute Mozart's death in 1791 to the cumulative effects of antimony-based remedies prescribed for his persistent illnesses, while King Charles II of England reportedly ingested antimony regularly, a habit believed to have contributed to his demise.

Similarly, Napoleon Bonaparte's involvement with toxic substances was revealed through hair analysis, which found high levels of arsenic. While arsenic was the main focus of speculation surrounding his death, there is evidence that Napoleon was also administered antimony-based treatments during his later years.

In the end, the dangers of antimony were eventually acknowledged, but its perceived medicinal value kept it in use well into the 18th century, bridging the gap between alchemical experimentation and early modern medicine. Yet, as the Industrial Revolution approached, the focus shifted from its medicinal applications to its metallurgical advantages.

No longer confined to the apothecary's cabinet, antimony found new significance in hardening lead alloys, signaling its pivotal role in emerging technologies and, later, in the demands of wartime production during World War I.

Old dog, new tricks

As industrialization progressed, the role of antimony shifted from medical to industrial, driven by the needs of a rapidly advancing world. By the early 20th century, its capacity to harden metals made it vital in manufacturing ammunition, flame-retardant materials, and lead-acid batteries – each crucial to emerging technologies and military operations.

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Original Henry Shrapnel design (left), and E.M. Boxer design of May 1852, which avoided premature explosions (right).

However, its first significant use in warfare came with the invention of shrapnel shells by British Major-General Henry Shrapnel. Developed in 1784, these spherical shells filled with musket balls were designed to explode, therefore maximizing casualties over a broader area and became a global standard by 1804. Antimony alloyed with lead was essential for hardening the bullets, ensuring their shape and impact effectiveness.

By World War I, antimony already become a strategic material for ammunition and military supplies, but the scale of this global conflict prompted intensified mining efforts, especially in stibnite-rich regions like China, Bolivia, and Mexico.

As World War II erupted, the demand for antimony reached unprecedented levels. The production of durable lead-acid batteries for military vehicles, communication devices, and submarines depended heavily on antimony-hardened lead alloys. Simultaneously, the element's flame-retardant properties became essential in protective gear, uniforms, and aircraft interiors, where safety was paramount.

Faced with strained overseas supplies, the United States launched aggressive efforts to secure antimony domestically, with Alaska's stibnite-rich deposits emerging as a focal point.

Remote deposits throughout Interior and Western Alaska, including major mining operations like the Scrafford Mine in Fairbanks, the Sliscovich Mine near Nome, and various properties in Kuskokwim, became vital assets.

Government incentives and wartime urgency spurred rapid development, resulting in significant increases in domestic antimony production. By 1943, mines across Alaska, including smaller operations like the Gilmer Mine in Vault Creek and the Tok Antimony Project, collectively contributed to a more self-sufficient supply chain.

While Alaska's stibnite mines were instrumental during the war, production waned in the post-war years as demand shifted toward new technologies like semiconductors while domestic demand was met through imports.

Despite the decline of active antimony mining in Alaska, the state's historical contribution laid the groundwork for subsequent strategic mineral initiatives.

Reviving Alaskan resource

Driven by the U.S. government's push to secure domestic supplies of critical minerals, modern exploration efforts have returned to Alaska's historical antimony sites.

"It has long been known that stibnite, the sulfide of antimony and the principal source of that metal, is widely distributed in Alaska," Alfred Brooks wrote in his 1917 report, Antimony Deposits of Alaska.

His early 20th-century investigation identified 67 stibnite occurrences across Alaska, mainly concentrated in regions like Nome, Fairbanks, and Iditarod – areas historically associated with gold mining.

Today, Alaska's potential for antimony is being revisited by modern exploration efforts aiming to reduce U.S. reliance on foreign sources. Companies like Felix Gold Ltd. and Nova Minerals Ltd. are exploring opportunities to reestablish antimony production as a byproduct of their gold projects.

Felix Gold's Treasure Creek project, which historically produced roughly 2.4 million pounds of antimony between 1915 and the 1970s and situated near the historic Scrafford Mine in Fairbanks, is one such initiative.

At Nova Minerals' Estelle project, located 100 miles northwest of Anchorage, significant stibnite discoveries have been made alongside the ongoing gold exploration. High-grade samples of stibnite have added a strategic dimension to the gold-focused project, aligning with U.S. Department of Interior interests in critical minerals for national security.

Nova Minerals Ltd.

A stibnite sample collected from Nova Minerals' Estelle property in Alaska, showcasing the metallic luster of this primary ore of antimony.

These developments mirror the broader potential for recovering antimony from precious metal deposits, a prospect that the USGS highlighted in its 2018 critical minerals report: "Enhanced recovery of antimony from precious metal deposits may represent the most readily available source of antimony if demand were to increase rapidly."

While the Stibnite Gold project in Idaho is expected to meet approximately 35% of America's antimony demand, potential recovery from Alaska's deposits could provide a complementary domestic source.

By reexamining historical sites and integrating modern extraction methods, Alaska could reemerge as a strategic contributor to the U.S. antimony supply chain, and this renewed exploration would not only offer potential to strengthen national security but also position Alaska as a leading player in the evolving landscape of critical minerals.